ATMOSPHERE

ATMOSPHERE

Is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere,fase gas that surrounds the Earth's surface. There ranging from sea level, which is currently considered to be 0:00 m elevation, continue upwards. Upper boundary is not clear, so it can not be determined boundary between atmosphere and outer space with the firm. Based on observations of temperature, the atmosphere is divided into 4 parts or layers. The bottom layer, or layer closest to the earth's surface, where temperature decreases with increasing elevation is called the troposphere, which means the area where the air is turned. In this layer occurs clouds, precipitation, storms and so on. so that this layer is also called the weather layer, its thickness is uneven, the average to a height of 12 km.

Top layer is the stratosphere, and the displacement of this layer is called the tropopause. Stratospheric temperature constant, averaging -55  C to a height of 20 km, then ascending in elevation, up to a height of 50 km. The rise in temperature at this altitude because this area is the concentration of ozone. As we all know that ozone absorbs ultra violet rays emitted by the sun. This absorption causes the temperature increase in this layer. Later on it found Mesosfir layers, beginning with the transition zone called the stratopause. And Termosfir, after the mesopause. Above an altitude of 80 km to 320 km consists of charged particles (ions), hence the name ionosphere.

This layer is very important in communication, it reflects radio waves. The radio waves from one hemisphere can be accepted in other parts, because the signal reflected by the layer ionsfir.

And above the ionosphere, up to 800 km. Exosfir layer called, consisting of helium and hydrogen gas at the same ratio of 50%.

Atmospheric Composition

The air contained in the atmosphere, it seems only a single kind of material, but is actually composed of various materials consisting of gases and fine particles. Its composition is not fixed from time to time and every place. Gas near the Earth's surface there are as dry air (dry air) and the moist layer.

Dry air contains gases nitrogen, 78%, 21% oxygen, argon 0.9% and 0.03% carbon dioxide. Everything is almost 99.99%. While the rest, approximately 0.01% consist of the gases helium, neon, krypton and xenon, which are classified as inert gases and is the result of chemical reactions. Helium occurs as a side product in the radioactive process.

A moist layer of air containing some water vapor. Levels of water vapor in the atmosphere is not the same in all places, is highly dependent on temperature. At a temperature of 0 ° C.

not more than 5 grams H2O/m3 and at 40 ° C is not less than 55gr/m3.

In humid climates can reach 5% by volume, whereas in dry climates (the poles for example) only 0, 01% by volume. The amount of water in the atmosphere is 15.1015 kg, although it seems very small compared with the whole atmosphere, but this is very important as a source of water on earth.

SOLAR PLANETS

Solar Planets

Earth is one planet in the solar system, and there is The universe within an infinite amount. As we know that in the universe there is not only one our solar system alone but still there is more to thousands in number, until now no one knows for sure. There are new allegations based on the observation of the earth and from space.

Solar or solar system is a system consisting of the sun and the planets and celestial bodies that revolve around it, according to a specific orbit. The planets can remain in orbit due to gravitational pull.

The formation of our solar system similar to the sun the other in the universe. Regarding the formation of the solar system there are several theories, one of which is the theory or model Nobular; in the universe that seems hollow, actually contain the atoms of various elements, which is spread everywhere in the form of "cloud" thin, thin gaseous turbulent and rotating. When a thin gas clouds are slowly solidified by grouping scattered atoms, was born the solar center of the sun. The kinetic energy of the rotating gases and volatile increases the rotation of the sun and its planets.

Groups the atoms caused by the force of gravity and because the movement of the atoms are moving slowly toward each other, making the gas becomes hotter and more dense. One of the processes, group this gas formed the earth and other planets, Figure 1.1 shows the nebular theory of this process.

More than 99 percent of the atoms in space is hydrogen and helium are the two lightest atoms. Near the center of the cloud of gas, the atoms are in a high pressure and temperature so that hydrogen and helium begin to merge, to form heavier elements. Merger of lighter elements into heavier elements causing the release of heat energy. Hydrogen and helium nuclear burning experience.

The sun is formed when the nuclear burning begins in a cloud of gas, approximately 6,000 million years ago. Limited the nuclear burning of gas clouds in the center. While the low-pressure gas is still spinning rapidly around its center, the sun.

Turnover create centrifugal force, pulling towards the outside, whereas gravity tends to pull the gases inside, towards the sun. As a result of these two opposing forces is slowly making a flat-shaped cloud of gas, forming a disc of gas rotating around the sun, and called nebulae planetaria.

The outside of the cooler nebular planetaria, become quite dense and allow condensed solid materials. Which eventually became the planets, Figure 1.2.

Another theory about the formation of the solar system proposed by experts in cosmology (cosmologist), as a "big bang", which occurs in 20 billiun (10 9) years ago. According to this theory, at some point the entire universe together into a solid sphere,

FIGURE 1.1. Solar system formation model Nobular. Solar system starting from a rotating cloud of gas (A). Most of the mass is concentrated in the center and formed the Sun, and the rest of the material accumulated to form planets concentrated (B). The solar system today (C). Earth is the third planet from the Sun, about 150 million kilometers and has a unique composition that allows the existence of life. (Carla W Montgomery, 1989) 

hot and very massive. Then there was a massive explosion destroyed it and produce splinters thrown to everywhere rotating direction and form the solar system-solar. Celestial bodies that formed this move away from each other. And one day the motion is slow and the system will stop. Then the force of gravity will put it back together, maybe 20 billion years later, became a "ball of fire" again. Furthermore happen again 'big-bang' which in the instant form the solar system-solar new.

Today we know the sun as the center of the solar system, surrounded by the planets, including planet Earth, orbiting around it, or heliocentric. Ellipse-shaped orbit trajectory. However, at the time BC was not the case. Yunani who had studied astronomy, believes will geocenric, which means the earth was the center of the solar system. The sun and stars moving around the earth. At that time believed that the earth is round (spheric), not moving or stationary, and surrounded by a transparent space where the stars hung.

In the solar system we know today, the sun surrounded by nine planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Based on the mass density and distance from the sun, grouped into Terrestrial Planets, which is the fourth planet nearest the sun and the other Jovian planets.

Terrestrial planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are similar to the Earth, has a large mass meeting, 3 g / cm 3 or more and small. While the Jovian planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, similar to Jupiter, the path farther from the Sun, its mass is smaller meetings, only 0.7 to 1.3 g / cm 3, but its mass is much greater . For example Jupiter and Saturn, has a mass of 317 and 95 times the mass of the earth, so the shape is larger than the Earth.

The planets nearest the sun at high temperature, composed of materials that can only be condensed at high temperatures, such as iron (Fe), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (Al). The planets that are far from the sun's temperature is lower and consists of such elements in addition to the above, as well as volatile elements, such as hydrogen, helium and sulfur gases that can form even at low temperatures.

Figure 1.2 Composition of the solar system. Jovian planets much larger than the Terrestrial planets. The sun is the center and a few hundred times larger than planets, (Skinner, 2004).

GEOLOGY SCIENCES

What's Geology? 

Unconsciously geological knowledge has been applied since prehistoric times. Early humans already know the kind of rock is good for raw material weapon, as a tool to hunt and defend themselves. Similarly, the pottery clay as an ingredient. It also is know also where they can get it or find it. Then the Romans founded the pyramids and statues sphynks not in the flood plain of the Nile but disuatu safe from flood plains and has a strong foundation so that no subsidence (subsidence), due to very heavy loads.

Furthermore, human curiosity about the natural surroundings, the existence of volcanoes, landscapes, steep hills and steep valleys. The occurrence of catastrophic earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes and other natural disasters, encourages people to learn it. And then the desire to live more comfortably, with a search for energy sources.

Petroleum and coal, which is indispensable as a substitute for firewood, which is indispensable as a fuel or energy source. Both for industry and transportation as well as for space heating during winter. And in World War, much-needed metals as raw materials and fuel gun makers.

Also need to be metal as industrial raw materials and precious metals for jewelry and corrosion resistant coatings, such as gold, silver, chroom, nickel as well as some minerals that are required as raw material for semi-conductor in the electronics industry.

Increased population of the earth a very rapid settlement also requires in addition to his needs more and more variety, including water and environmental issues. To meet all this, curiosity evolved into a need to know more and solving the problems of earth and circumvent use of the earth (Earth Resources) of ours.

With the development of science and the growing need for energy resources, geology also growing, thanks to support from other branches of science and technology kemjuan, such as the availability of satellite imagery and so on. With satellite images can be mapped land and ocean bottom quickly and accurately. Other examples, such as geophysics, can be proved that the theory of flotation continent triggered by Alfred Wegener in 1912's, the "suspect" that the original continent of South America and Africa together. And then split up, be like the present, separated by the Atlantic ocean. This opinion was originally the subject of derision and scorn. But it is true, and developed the theory of flotation Continental (Continental Drift), which is now better known as the Theory of Plate Tectonics, since the 1960s. This theory can explain and simplify many things about the natural phenomena which was originally considered to be unknown and mysterious. Sudden arrival of earthquake and volcano suddenly erupted, and so on.

Also important is the changing paradigm of the presence of hydrocarbons and also develop methods of mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. Development of computers with various software (currently available programs for geology) the geological trigger towards the quantitative. 

In the following chapters will be outlined planet earth, both constituent materials and natural processes that have been and are going. 

History of Geological Sciences. 

Kind and material properties of the earth, and the processes that take place on the surface of the earth was the center of attention since several centuries. The Greeks since 2300 years ago, has written about fossils, gemstones, earthquakes and volcanoes. A very prominent at that time was Aristotle. He was a philosopher, therefore, more explanation of statements at will alone is not the result of observations or experiments. For example the formation of rocks, said to be the result of the influence of the stars. And earthquakes are air explosion of a solid earth due to heating by a central fire. The explanation for that period is sufficient. But because he was a leader of the philosopher and respected, opinion is more acceptable than the opinion based on observations or experiments. So rather inhibits the progress of science. Then known as the doctrine that includes some revolutionaries at that time: 

Catastrophism; throughout the 17th and 18th century doctrine of catastrophism is very popular. Its adherents believe that the shape of the surface of the earth and all life on it is formed and destroyed in an instant due to a disaster (catastroph) large. Mountains, valleys and other forms, which we now know its formation requires a very long time, millions of years, considered to be formed in just a moment. 

Uniformitarianism; late 18th century regarded as the beginning of modern geology, because at this time, James Hutton, the father of modern geology, a Scottish physicist, in 1795 published his book: Theory of the Earth. Where he sparked the doctrine uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism is the basic concept of modern geology. This doctrine states that the laws of physics, chemistry and biology of the present day also took place in the past. That is, the forces and processes that shape Earth's surface as we observe today has been going on since the formation of the earth. This doctrine is more famous as: "The present is the key to the past."

Since then people realize that the earth is always changing. Thus it is clear that geology is closely related to time.

Geology and geologists

Earth is always changing. Small changes, slowly but continuously, and a large and rapid sporadic, such as landslides and volcanic eruptions. Whether small or large and persistent or sporadic, which clearly changed. So, the earth is not static or never quiet. The study of these changes in the past and today is the geology.

Thus geology is the study of the earth and are: the science that studies the Earth as a whole, the origin, composition, structure, history (including the development of life) and the natural processes that have been and are being held, making the state of the earth as it is today.   

Geology The word was first used in 1473 by Richard de Bury, for legal or earth science, as opposed to the term theology. Actually there are several opinions about who was first to use the words of this geology. Among others, an Englishman named Warren in 1690 published a Geologia. And in 1778 by Jean Andre de Luc ¢ Queen Charlotte advisors and also in the work of a Swiss chemist, SB de Saussure. The word geology comes from the Greek word, GEOS means earth and logia which means the study or science.

Thus geology is the study of the earth. People who study the earth are called geologists, geologiawan or geologist, who worked in every corner of the globe, from ice-covered peaks, active volcanoes to the sea. They are trying to understand all the processes that take place on the earth and documenting the history of the earth a long and complex. To direct the research was done in every place that can be achieved. The part that is not achieved, under the earth's surface for example, for drilling in dilakukuan investigations. Or, with no direct observation, from the vibrations of earthquakes. From various observations attempted to understand the history of the earth and the origin of the earth's surface is complex. In addition it also endeavored to find out where there is a new oil fields, coal, geothermal (geothermal), water sources and where mineral deposits (ore deposits, and other precious metals) is hidden.

Hydro carbon or fossil fuels are being exploited today, a time will run out, because it does not happen renewal (renewable). Which we explore now is the result of millions and even hundreds of millions of years ago. Therefore the search of new fields has never stopped and require a more modern methods, because the more difficult.

For development planning of a large building structures (eg the giant dam) disuatu area, civil engineering geological data require the area. Both the stability regions and the location of the necessary building materials, and geologic structures that developed in the planning area.

The processes studied, all adhere to the fundamentals of natural law found physicists, chemistry and mathematics. Which raised the opinion that the geological sciences rely on others (derivatives science). But geology is a science special and very real (practical science), because the science of geology based on observations. So it can be seen and proven (tested).

Based on the evidence and experiments before conclusions can be drawn, it is thus our knowledge of the earth will always be more advanced.

As has been stated that the geology is a science group that continues to evolve. Some of these groups that became the basis of geology are: 

The branches of geology consists of: 

Mineralogy, studying the minerals, the composition, how it happened, crystal structure and physical properties. Mineralogy is the basis for the study of rock. 

Petrology, the study of rocks, the origin of occurrence, structure and texture, classification or grouping of various kinds of rocks found on Earth's surface. Stratigraphy, to describe and study the bedding of the rocks, on the spreader's, composition, thickness, age, diversity and correlation of rock layers. 

Paleontology is the study of the fossils, the remnants and traces of past life. The set of fossils can be used to make the layer coating the correlation of the same age disuatu a wide area. 

Structural geology, studying the architecture and configuration of the Earth's surface rocks in the earth's crust where rock layers are deformed broken, misaligned, or folded into mountain folds. Knowledge structure can help in the search and distribution of minerals. 

• Geomorphology, studying the form of the earth and the natural processes that shape it. Analyze and interpret historical landscape. 
• Geophysics is the study of physical properties of the earth as a whole, including seismic, gravity, kemagnitan, temperature gradient and so on. 
• Geochemistry, is essentially a study of the composition (chemical) of the earth. Study the existence of economic elements, isotopes in the earth and spread of certain elements in various places.Geochemical exploration methods are very helpful in the search for minerals and hydro carbon. 
• Economic geology, studying the presence, distribution and occurrence of economic minerals. Calculating reserves and mineral deposits of economic value.
• Geological engineering, the use of geology in engineering, closely related to civil engineering.

Linkages with other sciences 

The processes that work on the surface of the earth very closely related to the laws of physics, chemistry and biology. All the processes that take place both inside and on the surface of the earth to follow the laws of physics. Erosion, transport and deposition of sediments under the influence of gravity. The material forming the earth, rocks in the crust, mantle and core of the earth, consisting of compounds of chemical elements. And to study the history of life, need knowledge of the life of fauna and flora.